Perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies: the case of smallholder farmers of Raymond Mhlaba, Port Saint Johns’ and Ingquza Hill local municipality in the Eastern Cape.
- Authors: Maya, Okuhle
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Climatic changes Farms, Small
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/17271 , vital:40871
- Description: Climate change has become indisputable judging from the observed global variations in precipitation, increases in average temperatures, rising average sea levels and melting of ice. The climate phenomenon has since evolved globally and it has been largely documented by scholars. Because of the increases in global temperatures, weather patterns have also changed. This change has resulted in debates on climate change as well as how to respond to it. Various scholars across the world have expressed their opinions about climate change; its causes, impacts and adaptation. In addition, there has been a growing body of literature and studies focusing on smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change. Without a doubt, climate change will and has left a group of people, communities and countries vulnerable. In particular, developing countries and poor communities in sub-Saharan Africa are expected to be affected the most by the impacts of climate change. This is mainly because of the region’s dependence on natural resources and their limited capacity to adapt. Literature further adds that vulnerability is on condition of the community’s socioeconomic characteristics and physical surroundings. Climate change variations pose a threat to the agricultural sector and food security of households relying on subsistence farming for survival. Climate variations such as decrease in rainfall and increased hot seasons have been reported to have led to a decline in food production, death of livestock and outbreaks human and animal diseases. The study’s main aim was to determine the smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies in Raymond Mhlaba, Port Saint Johns’ and Ingquza Hill local municipalities. Particularly, the study looked at the factors influencing these perceptions and the factors affecting the smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies used in response to climate change. Investigating perception provides insights into the fundamental drivers of behavioural changes in the face of climate change. On their part, adaptation options are greatly shaped by the nature of an individual’s behaviour. The study was carried out in 3 local municipalities (Raymond Mhlaba, Port St Johns’ and Ingquza Hill) in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The research design applied in this study was cross sectional design where data are collected at a single point in time. Multistage sampling technique was used in selecting respondents from the local municipalities. Stratification was then done to group farmers according to their vi wards and locations. Lastly, purposive sampling was used to select households and smallholder farmers practising crop and livestock production. A total of 211 smallholder farmers constituted the sample size for the study. A close-ended questionnaire was used to conduct structured interviews of household heads. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative approach. Data collected were coded and entered in Microsoft Excel and transferred to Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS, version 25) for analyses. Descriptive statistics was used to determine the climate change perceptions of smallholder farmers and also to explore the adaptation strategies used by farmers to cope with the impacts of climate change. The findings were explained using frequencies, means and variances. Multinomial Logistic Regression (MNL) was used to determine the factors affecting the choice of adaptation strategies used by smallholder farmers and the probability that a farmer would choose a particular strategy. The results from the study revealed most of the respondents as being able to identify the perceived changes in climate with the environmental changes that they observed. The respondents perceived climate change as an increase in drought period, increase in average temperatures, decrease and variations in rainfall, shortened growing season, crop failure, pests and diseases. However, most of the smallholder farmers disagreed with the frequency of flood incidences as they have not experienced these in their areas. In terms of responses to these changes in climate, the smallholder farmers have used a number of adaptation strategies to cope. Most of the farmers used crop diversification, organic manure, soil and water conservation practices, while others simply did not adapt and some used all the available adaptation strategies identified in this study. The results from the MNL revealed that occupation, household size and years spent in school (education) generally had a positive influence on the choice of adaptation strategy used by smallholder farmers. On the other hand, age; farming systems and membership of a farmers’ association were negatively affecting the smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategy to use in response to climate change. Much support is needed in terms of disseminating information and knowledge among smallholder farmers about climate change and its adaptation strategies. This can be possible through improving extension services, and providing credit to smallholder farmers
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
- Authors: Maya, Okuhle
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Climatic changes Farms, Small
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/17271 , vital:40871
- Description: Climate change has become indisputable judging from the observed global variations in precipitation, increases in average temperatures, rising average sea levels and melting of ice. The climate phenomenon has since evolved globally and it has been largely documented by scholars. Because of the increases in global temperatures, weather patterns have also changed. This change has resulted in debates on climate change as well as how to respond to it. Various scholars across the world have expressed their opinions about climate change; its causes, impacts and adaptation. In addition, there has been a growing body of literature and studies focusing on smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change. Without a doubt, climate change will and has left a group of people, communities and countries vulnerable. In particular, developing countries and poor communities in sub-Saharan Africa are expected to be affected the most by the impacts of climate change. This is mainly because of the region’s dependence on natural resources and their limited capacity to adapt. Literature further adds that vulnerability is on condition of the community’s socioeconomic characteristics and physical surroundings. Climate change variations pose a threat to the agricultural sector and food security of households relying on subsistence farming for survival. Climate variations such as decrease in rainfall and increased hot seasons have been reported to have led to a decline in food production, death of livestock and outbreaks human and animal diseases. The study’s main aim was to determine the smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies in Raymond Mhlaba, Port Saint Johns’ and Ingquza Hill local municipalities. Particularly, the study looked at the factors influencing these perceptions and the factors affecting the smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies used in response to climate change. Investigating perception provides insights into the fundamental drivers of behavioural changes in the face of climate change. On their part, adaptation options are greatly shaped by the nature of an individual’s behaviour. The study was carried out in 3 local municipalities (Raymond Mhlaba, Port St Johns’ and Ingquza Hill) in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The research design applied in this study was cross sectional design where data are collected at a single point in time. Multistage sampling technique was used in selecting respondents from the local municipalities. Stratification was then done to group farmers according to their vi wards and locations. Lastly, purposive sampling was used to select households and smallholder farmers practising crop and livestock production. A total of 211 smallholder farmers constituted the sample size for the study. A close-ended questionnaire was used to conduct structured interviews of household heads. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative approach. Data collected were coded and entered in Microsoft Excel and transferred to Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS, version 25) for analyses. Descriptive statistics was used to determine the climate change perceptions of smallholder farmers and also to explore the adaptation strategies used by farmers to cope with the impacts of climate change. The findings were explained using frequencies, means and variances. Multinomial Logistic Regression (MNL) was used to determine the factors affecting the choice of adaptation strategies used by smallholder farmers and the probability that a farmer would choose a particular strategy. The results from the study revealed most of the respondents as being able to identify the perceived changes in climate with the environmental changes that they observed. The respondents perceived climate change as an increase in drought period, increase in average temperatures, decrease and variations in rainfall, shortened growing season, crop failure, pests and diseases. However, most of the smallholder farmers disagreed with the frequency of flood incidences as they have not experienced these in their areas. In terms of responses to these changes in climate, the smallholder farmers have used a number of adaptation strategies to cope. Most of the farmers used crop diversification, organic manure, soil and water conservation practices, while others simply did not adapt and some used all the available adaptation strategies identified in this study. The results from the MNL revealed that occupation, household size and years spent in school (education) generally had a positive influence on the choice of adaptation strategy used by smallholder farmers. On the other hand, age; farming systems and membership of a farmers’ association were negatively affecting the smallholder farmers’ choice of adaptation strategy to use in response to climate change. Much support is needed in terms of disseminating information and knowledge among smallholder farmers about climate change and its adaptation strategies. This can be possible through improving extension services, and providing credit to smallholder farmers
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
The role of gardening in improving community resilience in rural areas: a case study of Raymond Mhlaba, Port St Johns and Ingquza Hill Local Municipalities, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
- Authors: Hendrick, Namhla Andiphile
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Community gardens
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/17224 , vital:40867
- Description: The increase of challenges in rural areas especially in developing countries has widened the vulnerability of rural people in the rural communities. This study has found that gardening has become the weapon to defend rural people and communities in developing countries against poverty and other hardships, since gardening in rural communities has the possibility to act as sustainable livelihood strategy. Semi structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from smallholder farmers in the three local municipalities (Raymond Mhlaba, Port St Johns and Ingquza Hill local municipalities). The research investigated both home and community gardening. Multistage sampling was employed to select the sample. In stage one, the three Local Municipalities (LM’s) were purposively selected. In stage two, farmers were grouped into wards and communities and samples drawn in such a way that each group was well represented. This was followed by using quota sampling through the census statistics to determine farmers who are practising gardening whether it is community gardening or household gardening in these three local municipalities. Finally, random sampling was used to select a sample of 203 households that are undertaking some form of gardening (home or community) and are willingness to participate in the study. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 24) was used to analyse the data by means of descriptive statistics and logistic regression model. The results confirm the strong links between home or community gardening and community resilience and that the influence is conditioned by a range of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, including, age, occupation, access to extension officer and farming experience. In the light of the foregoing, it is recommended that households and communities be encouraged establish and operate home and/or community gardens as a strategy for coping with adversities that rural areas confront from time to time. In line with that, social interactions must be encouraged in communities because such interactions increase resilience in the sense that they build confidence in community members and a strong sense of belonging and trust. The role of education in enhancing access to information and knowledge that promote community resilience to disasters and shocks needs to be recognized and incorporated in community planning
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
- Authors: Hendrick, Namhla Andiphile
- Date: 2019
- Subjects: Community gardens
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/17224 , vital:40867
- Description: The increase of challenges in rural areas especially in developing countries has widened the vulnerability of rural people in the rural communities. This study has found that gardening has become the weapon to defend rural people and communities in developing countries against poverty and other hardships, since gardening in rural communities has the possibility to act as sustainable livelihood strategy. Semi structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from smallholder farmers in the three local municipalities (Raymond Mhlaba, Port St Johns and Ingquza Hill local municipalities). The research investigated both home and community gardening. Multistage sampling was employed to select the sample. In stage one, the three Local Municipalities (LM’s) were purposively selected. In stage two, farmers were grouped into wards and communities and samples drawn in such a way that each group was well represented. This was followed by using quota sampling through the census statistics to determine farmers who are practising gardening whether it is community gardening or household gardening in these three local municipalities. Finally, random sampling was used to select a sample of 203 households that are undertaking some form of gardening (home or community) and are willingness to participate in the study. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 24) was used to analyse the data by means of descriptive statistics and logistic regression model. The results confirm the strong links between home or community gardening and community resilience and that the influence is conditioned by a range of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, including, age, occupation, access to extension officer and farming experience. In the light of the foregoing, it is recommended that households and communities be encouraged establish and operate home and/or community gardens as a strategy for coping with adversities that rural areas confront from time to time. In line with that, social interactions must be encouraged in communities because such interactions increase resilience in the sense that they build confidence in community members and a strong sense of belonging and trust. The role of education in enhancing access to information and knowledge that promote community resilience to disasters and shocks needs to be recognized and incorporated in community planning
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2019
An investigation on the motivational feattures influence on technical efficiency and profitability of smallholder irrigated crop farmers in Kwa-Nobuhle, Eastern Cape province of South Africa
- Authors: Funde, Sibongile
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Crops -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape -- Marketing Irrigation farming -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Agriculture -- Economic aspects -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/11917 , vital:39118
- Description: Substantial impact and the importance of agriculture in the economies of the developing countries is increasingly acknowledged. Agriculture generally has shown to remain crucial to economic development. It has been noted that agricultural growth plays a pivotal role in poverty reduction and employment creation. Due to the potential of the smallholder sector to alleviate poverty and minimize unemployment rate leading to the country’s economic growth, enormous development programs have in the past and continues to be implemented by South African government. Programs such as land-based development strategies including agriculture, extension services, improved technologies including irrigation establishment, revitalization and rehabilitation, water rights legislation and financial support. However, the current state of smallholder low-agricultural productivity growth trends raises concerns on what other fundamental development strategies to implement in order to enhance agricultural productivity growth. Hence, this study seeks to address the impact of social farming on agricultural productivity by investigating smallholder farmer’s motivational features. Motivational features regarded are as important determinants of success, modify behaviour, serve to mobilize and direct energy into actions. Given the importance of motivational features and their formation in social interaction, the objective of the study was to investigate motivational features of smallholder farmers with regard to expanding irrigation land, determine technical efficiency of smallholder farmers as well as their profitability generation capability. A multistage sampling method was used that involved using purposive sampling, simple random sampling was adopted where three smallholder agriculture projects using irrigation methods to farm were selected and by use of snowball sampling the study ended up collecting data from a total of 124 respondents. The sample was chosen on the basis that smallholder farmers hold attributes that were crucial for execution of this research. The study proceeded by conducting face-to face interviews of smallholder farmers, focus groups and key informant using interview schedules and a questionnaire consisting both open and close-ended questions. Data were analysed using different methods. Firstly, data were analysed descriptively to get a deeper understanding of smallholder farmer’s socio-economic characteristics as well as their motivational features. Secondly, data were analysed statistically to determine Technical Efficiency (TE) of smallholder farmers using both Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Lastly, Gross Margin Analysis was used to measure farmer’s profitability. Results show that smallholder farmers have a range of motivational features that incorporates both productive and non-productive goals. The study made use of twenty-five goals obtained from literature studies and categorised them into six motivational feature types namely; outcome based, process focused/extrinsic, performance, achievement, intrinsic/self-efficacy, and household livelihood strategies. Smallholder female and male outcome based motivations were found to be statistically significant at 5percent, while process focused/extrinsic, performance, achievement, intrinsic/self-efficacy and household livelihood strategies motivations between them were found not to be statistically significant, which means that smallholder female and male motivations are not different and that both farmers consider such motivations at the same level. Technical Efficiency (TE) was measured using DEA method and was found to be 0.70, which is different from the TE obtained using SFA that was 0.47. Three dominant crops were produced, namely potatoes, cabbage and spinach. Cabbage crop was the most produced, had the highest gross margin results with a commercialization ratio of 0.33percent as compared to potatoes and spinach. Which indicates that cabbage is a high value crop to smallholder farmers of Kwa-Nobuhle area. In view of the research findings, it was concluded that motivational features of smallholder farmers were positively related to technical efficiency which implies that the more motivated farmers become, the higher their technical efficiency, hence their potential to expand land under irrigation. Cabbage production was high and more profitable than potatoes and spinach production. Recommendations include that government, NGO’s, private sector and institution need to promote the use of improved technologies, agricultural training and take smallholder farmer’s motivational features into account in development programmes. These actions are necessary to increase irrigated farming, overcome low-performance levels and enhance profitability of smallholder farmers, and ultimately achieve poverty alleviation and improve employment opportunities in the rural areas.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
- Authors: Funde, Sibongile
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Crops -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape -- Marketing Irrigation farming -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Agriculture -- Economic aspects -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/11917 , vital:39118
- Description: Substantial impact and the importance of agriculture in the economies of the developing countries is increasingly acknowledged. Agriculture generally has shown to remain crucial to economic development. It has been noted that agricultural growth plays a pivotal role in poverty reduction and employment creation. Due to the potential of the smallholder sector to alleviate poverty and minimize unemployment rate leading to the country’s economic growth, enormous development programs have in the past and continues to be implemented by South African government. Programs such as land-based development strategies including agriculture, extension services, improved technologies including irrigation establishment, revitalization and rehabilitation, water rights legislation and financial support. However, the current state of smallholder low-agricultural productivity growth trends raises concerns on what other fundamental development strategies to implement in order to enhance agricultural productivity growth. Hence, this study seeks to address the impact of social farming on agricultural productivity by investigating smallholder farmer’s motivational features. Motivational features regarded are as important determinants of success, modify behaviour, serve to mobilize and direct energy into actions. Given the importance of motivational features and their formation in social interaction, the objective of the study was to investigate motivational features of smallholder farmers with regard to expanding irrigation land, determine technical efficiency of smallholder farmers as well as their profitability generation capability. A multistage sampling method was used that involved using purposive sampling, simple random sampling was adopted where three smallholder agriculture projects using irrigation methods to farm were selected and by use of snowball sampling the study ended up collecting data from a total of 124 respondents. The sample was chosen on the basis that smallholder farmers hold attributes that were crucial for execution of this research. The study proceeded by conducting face-to face interviews of smallholder farmers, focus groups and key informant using interview schedules and a questionnaire consisting both open and close-ended questions. Data were analysed using different methods. Firstly, data were analysed descriptively to get a deeper understanding of smallholder farmer’s socio-economic characteristics as well as their motivational features. Secondly, data were analysed statistically to determine Technical Efficiency (TE) of smallholder farmers using both Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) and Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA). Lastly, Gross Margin Analysis was used to measure farmer’s profitability. Results show that smallholder farmers have a range of motivational features that incorporates both productive and non-productive goals. The study made use of twenty-five goals obtained from literature studies and categorised them into six motivational feature types namely; outcome based, process focused/extrinsic, performance, achievement, intrinsic/self-efficacy, and household livelihood strategies. Smallholder female and male outcome based motivations were found to be statistically significant at 5percent, while process focused/extrinsic, performance, achievement, intrinsic/self-efficacy and household livelihood strategies motivations between them were found not to be statistically significant, which means that smallholder female and male motivations are not different and that both farmers consider such motivations at the same level. Technical Efficiency (TE) was measured using DEA method and was found to be 0.70, which is different from the TE obtained using SFA that was 0.47. Three dominant crops were produced, namely potatoes, cabbage and spinach. Cabbage crop was the most produced, had the highest gross margin results with a commercialization ratio of 0.33percent as compared to potatoes and spinach. Which indicates that cabbage is a high value crop to smallholder farmers of Kwa-Nobuhle area. In view of the research findings, it was concluded that motivational features of smallholder farmers were positively related to technical efficiency which implies that the more motivated farmers become, the higher their technical efficiency, hence their potential to expand land under irrigation. Cabbage production was high and more profitable than potatoes and spinach production. Recommendations include that government, NGO’s, private sector and institution need to promote the use of improved technologies, agricultural training and take smallholder farmer’s motivational features into account in development programmes. These actions are necessary to increase irrigated farming, overcome low-performance levels and enhance profitability of smallholder farmers, and ultimately achieve poverty alleviation and improve employment opportunities in the rural areas.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
Evaluation of the socio-economic performance of smallholder irrigation schemes in Idutywa Village of the Eastern Cape Province
- Authors: Jiba, Phiwe
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Irrigation farming -- Economic aspects Farms, Small -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Agricultural development projects -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/4705 , vital:28497
- Description: South Africa and other African countries are faced with high levels of food insecurity and poverty levels as a result of slow growth of the macro economy and weak or sluggish rural development. Irrigation scheme development is seen as an important strategy to address the challenges faced by households in rural areas and restores growth and enhanced livelihoods. While the international experience shows that Irrigation schemes are potentially transformative of poor communities and have been operational for many years now, there is no marked improvement in living conditions of rural households in terms of livelihoods and income. This raises the question as to whether or not the schemes are viable from a socio-economic perspective and whether or not there are reasons for concern and revision of the policy framework for smallholder irrigation schemes. As a result of that, the broad objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of smallholder irrigation schemes to household income and food security of rural households in Idutywa village of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. Specifically, this research investigated the major factors that influence their performance, impact of irrigation farming on rural livelihood and household food security as well as identifying the possible opportunities of production that would improve their performance. The study was carried out in Idutywa villages of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 107 households. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and the study employed stratified random sampling. The study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to estimate the central tendency and dispersion as well as testing the hypothesis that there is a difference in the contribution between irrigators and non-irrigators using STATA and SPSS. Probit regression model was used to estimate factors that influenced the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes. The descriptive statistics employed included means, percentages and frequencies on the socio-economic characteristics of households in the study areas. The results show that females were dominant with a representation of 66.7 percent. The majority of households were aged and the mean age was 65 years. High level of illiteracy in the project area was revealed by the data. The average number of years, households spent in school was between 6 years to 10 years in school. Farming was found to be the major agricultural economic activity. Sixty-three (63 percent) were full time farmers. The results further show that household size ranges between 1 to 5 persons. The households were shown to be mostly dependent on social grant with household income hovering around R 1 000. The results from propensity score matching revealed that irrigation exerts a positive impact on household income. This provides sufficient evidence that irrigation schemes do make a contribution to rural livelihoods through their effect on household income and food security. This implies that government should continue investing in irrigation schemes as part of a strategy to grow the rural economy and improve rural livelihoods. This is in line with the Agricultural Policy Action Plan (APAP) and National Development Plan (NDP) of South Africa. Probit analysis suggests that age of the households, household size and market were some of the key determinants that positively influenced households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes while access to credit had significant but negative effect on households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes. Based on the findings highlighted above, it is recommended that addressing such barriers may create enabling conditions that would encourage households to access and participate more effectively in smallholder irrigation schemes.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
- Authors: Jiba, Phiwe
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Irrigation farming -- Economic aspects Farms, Small -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Agricultural development projects -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/4705 , vital:28497
- Description: South Africa and other African countries are faced with high levels of food insecurity and poverty levels as a result of slow growth of the macro economy and weak or sluggish rural development. Irrigation scheme development is seen as an important strategy to address the challenges faced by households in rural areas and restores growth and enhanced livelihoods. While the international experience shows that Irrigation schemes are potentially transformative of poor communities and have been operational for many years now, there is no marked improvement in living conditions of rural households in terms of livelihoods and income. This raises the question as to whether or not the schemes are viable from a socio-economic perspective and whether or not there are reasons for concern and revision of the policy framework for smallholder irrigation schemes. As a result of that, the broad objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of smallholder irrigation schemes to household income and food security of rural households in Idutywa village of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. Specifically, this research investigated the major factors that influence their performance, impact of irrigation farming on rural livelihood and household food security as well as identifying the possible opportunities of production that would improve their performance. The study was carried out in Idutywa villages of the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 107 households. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and the study employed stratified random sampling. The study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to estimate the central tendency and dispersion as well as testing the hypothesis that there is a difference in the contribution between irrigators and non-irrigators using STATA and SPSS. Probit regression model was used to estimate factors that influenced the performance of smallholder irrigation schemes. The descriptive statistics employed included means, percentages and frequencies on the socio-economic characteristics of households in the study areas. The results show that females were dominant with a representation of 66.7 percent. The majority of households were aged and the mean age was 65 years. High level of illiteracy in the project area was revealed by the data. The average number of years, households spent in school was between 6 years to 10 years in school. Farming was found to be the major agricultural economic activity. Sixty-three (63 percent) were full time farmers. The results further show that household size ranges between 1 to 5 persons. The households were shown to be mostly dependent on social grant with household income hovering around R 1 000. The results from propensity score matching revealed that irrigation exerts a positive impact on household income. This provides sufficient evidence that irrigation schemes do make a contribution to rural livelihoods through their effect on household income and food security. This implies that government should continue investing in irrigation schemes as part of a strategy to grow the rural economy and improve rural livelihoods. This is in line with the Agricultural Policy Action Plan (APAP) and National Development Plan (NDP) of South Africa. Probit analysis suggests that age of the households, household size and market were some of the key determinants that positively influenced households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes while access to credit had significant but negative effect on households’ decision to participate in smallholder irrigation schemes. Based on the findings highlighted above, it is recommended that addressing such barriers may create enabling conditions that would encourage households to access and participate more effectively in smallholder irrigation schemes.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
Farm level cost-benefit analysis of conservation agriculture for maize smallholder farners in Okhahlamba Municipality in Kwa-Zulu Natal Province, South Africa
- Authors: Tafa, Sanelise
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Agriculture -- South Africa -- Cost effectiveness , Agricultural conservation -- South Africa -- Kwa-Zulu Natal , Land use -- Economic aspects -- South Africa , Sustainable agriculture -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/2809 , vital:28094
- Description: Land degradation is a serious problem that many poor communities face and this worsens their vulnerability and therefore, poses a threat to food security, as it reduces yield, forces farmers to use more inputs, and disproportionately affect the smallholder farmers in remote communities that also suffer diverse infrastructure disadvantages. In response to that, the international development agencies, donors, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), especially faith-based organizations have turned towards sustainable farming approaches. Much attention has been paid to a combination of sustainable farming measures which are packaged under the “Conservation Agriculture” (CA) banner. The previous work in the KZN Province and elsewhere has demonstrated that CA has the potential to improve the soil structure, thereby reversing the effect of soil degradation. Consequently, many of the farmers in the areas in which these demonstrations have been conducted appreciate the ecological and economic value of adopting CA. However, the on-farm financial benefits of adopting a CA specific tillage practice are not as well known or thought to be as pronounced. By means of integrating field survey, reviewed literature, and econometric analysis, this study assessed the farm level cost-benefit analysis of conservation agriculture for smallholder maize farmers in OLM, specifically in one demonstration village of Bergville town. The analysis is based on the case study of the NGO’s work in which they had selected a community and participating households who received assistance in a number of ways such as maize seed, soil preparation, and CA planters. To analyse the farm level cost-benefit analysis, descriptive, linear regression, gross margin (GM) and appraisal indicators such as Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) were used. The descriptive analysis, used to analyse the factors affecting the extent of adoption of CA revealed that socio-economic characteristics have the influence on the level to which a farmer responds to incentives. Linear regression model used in this study showed that years in farming, involvement in joint farmer’s group, and use of cover crops have the significant effect on the extent of adoption of CA. Moreover, the calculated gross margins of the two tillage systems were different, revealing higher Gross Margins for CA plots than for conventional plots. The major cause of the difference was found to be differences in the variable costs. When using appraisal indicators (NPV, BCR, and IRR) the study projected a 10-year period at 8% and 10.5% discount rates. The study also revealed positive NPVs for both CA and conventional agriculture. The positive sign implies that there are positive pay-offs for investing in both trial and control plots. However, trial plots have larger NPVs compared to control plots, meaning that there are less additional returns for investing in control plots compared to trial plots. Results also reveal that with 10.5% discount rate, the NPVs are lower than with 8% discount rate, showing that lower discount rates are consistent with higher performance over the long term. This therefore means that at lower discount rate, it is more viable to produce maize using CA than using conventional tillage system. In the case of BRC presented in the study, it was revealed that at both low and high discount rates, the trial plots were more viable than the control plots. Finally, the IRR presented in the study reveal that the trial plots would be able to pay their way much faster than the control plots. Overall, the study found that there are incentives to adoption of CA compared to conventional farming. The message from the different results arising from the use of different discount rates is that farmers should receive assistance at low cost of capital in order for their operations to be viable and this works out well over the long term as shown by the 10-year period projections.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
- Authors: Tafa, Sanelise
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Agriculture -- South Africa -- Cost effectiveness , Agricultural conservation -- South Africa -- Kwa-Zulu Natal , Land use -- Economic aspects -- South Africa , Sustainable agriculture -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/2809 , vital:28094
- Description: Land degradation is a serious problem that many poor communities face and this worsens their vulnerability and therefore, poses a threat to food security, as it reduces yield, forces farmers to use more inputs, and disproportionately affect the smallholder farmers in remote communities that also suffer diverse infrastructure disadvantages. In response to that, the international development agencies, donors, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), especially faith-based organizations have turned towards sustainable farming approaches. Much attention has been paid to a combination of sustainable farming measures which are packaged under the “Conservation Agriculture” (CA) banner. The previous work in the KZN Province and elsewhere has demonstrated that CA has the potential to improve the soil structure, thereby reversing the effect of soil degradation. Consequently, many of the farmers in the areas in which these demonstrations have been conducted appreciate the ecological and economic value of adopting CA. However, the on-farm financial benefits of adopting a CA specific tillage practice are not as well known or thought to be as pronounced. By means of integrating field survey, reviewed literature, and econometric analysis, this study assessed the farm level cost-benefit analysis of conservation agriculture for smallholder maize farmers in OLM, specifically in one demonstration village of Bergville town. The analysis is based on the case study of the NGO’s work in which they had selected a community and participating households who received assistance in a number of ways such as maize seed, soil preparation, and CA planters. To analyse the farm level cost-benefit analysis, descriptive, linear regression, gross margin (GM) and appraisal indicators such as Net Present Value (NPV), Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) were used. The descriptive analysis, used to analyse the factors affecting the extent of adoption of CA revealed that socio-economic characteristics have the influence on the level to which a farmer responds to incentives. Linear regression model used in this study showed that years in farming, involvement in joint farmer’s group, and use of cover crops have the significant effect on the extent of adoption of CA. Moreover, the calculated gross margins of the two tillage systems were different, revealing higher Gross Margins for CA plots than for conventional plots. The major cause of the difference was found to be differences in the variable costs. When using appraisal indicators (NPV, BCR, and IRR) the study projected a 10-year period at 8% and 10.5% discount rates. The study also revealed positive NPVs for both CA and conventional agriculture. The positive sign implies that there are positive pay-offs for investing in both trial and control plots. However, trial plots have larger NPVs compared to control plots, meaning that there are less additional returns for investing in control plots compared to trial plots. Results also reveal that with 10.5% discount rate, the NPVs are lower than with 8% discount rate, showing that lower discount rates are consistent with higher performance over the long term. This therefore means that at lower discount rate, it is more viable to produce maize using CA than using conventional tillage system. In the case of BRC presented in the study, it was revealed that at both low and high discount rates, the trial plots were more viable than the control plots. Finally, the IRR presented in the study reveal that the trial plots would be able to pay their way much faster than the control plots. Overall, the study found that there are incentives to adoption of CA compared to conventional farming. The message from the different results arising from the use of different discount rates is that farmers should receive assistance at low cost of capital in order for their operations to be viable and this works out well over the long term as shown by the 10-year period projections.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
Investigating adaptation strategies to climate change by smallholder farmers : evidence from, Lesotho
- Authors: Morahanye, Mokhantso Lilian
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Climatic changes -- South Africa Farms, Small -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/5807 , vital:29397
- Description: In Lesotho, agriculture is the dominant activity and involves crop and livestock production, range management and forestry activities. The current climatic variability in the country has caused decline in food production as result of increased dry spells, frequency of droughts and erratic rainfall. These climatic events are expected to have a significant impact on the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers. In combatting the harmful effects of climate change, smallholder farmers in Lesotho have employed various adaptation strategies based on their local knowledge and limited means. While these strategies may not be optimal they obviously constitute the basis for potentially effective improved technologies which can be developed and communicated through an efficient extension system, hence the need to precisely identify them and understand the factors that affect their choice. The main objective of this study was therefore, to identify the adaptation strategies and investigate the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ choice of those adaptation strategies. The study made use of multi-stage stratified sampling technique to select 160 respondents across four agro-ecological zones (lowlands, highlands, foothills and Senqu River Valley) in Leribe and Mohales’Hoek districts of Lesotho. Primary data for the study were collected using semi - structured questionnaire assisted with interview schedules administered on the respondents. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and the multinomial logistics regression model. The results show that there are more males than females, majority of the respondents’ attained primary education, and older people dominate the smallholder farming system. The adaptation strategies used in MNL model were soil and water management, crop management and livestock management. The results further revealed that soil and water management strategies were the most adopted climate change strategies amongst smallholder farmers. It is understood that marital status, age and gender, income, land tenure, crop grown, extension services, and agro-ecological zones are the determinant factors influencing the choice of the adaptation strategies. This study concludes by recommending that smallholder farmers should be sensitised about climate change and both government and non-government organisations working on climate change related issues should direct their attention to rural communities to ensure effective response to climate change.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
- Authors: Morahanye, Mokhantso Lilian
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Climatic changes -- South Africa Farms, Small -- South Africa
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/5807 , vital:29397
- Description: In Lesotho, agriculture is the dominant activity and involves crop and livestock production, range management and forestry activities. The current climatic variability in the country has caused decline in food production as result of increased dry spells, frequency of droughts and erratic rainfall. These climatic events are expected to have a significant impact on the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers. In combatting the harmful effects of climate change, smallholder farmers in Lesotho have employed various adaptation strategies based on their local knowledge and limited means. While these strategies may not be optimal they obviously constitute the basis for potentially effective improved technologies which can be developed and communicated through an efficient extension system, hence the need to precisely identify them and understand the factors that affect their choice. The main objective of this study was therefore, to identify the adaptation strategies and investigate the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ choice of those adaptation strategies. The study made use of multi-stage stratified sampling technique to select 160 respondents across four agro-ecological zones (lowlands, highlands, foothills and Senqu River Valley) in Leribe and Mohales’Hoek districts of Lesotho. Primary data for the study were collected using semi - structured questionnaire assisted with interview schedules administered on the respondents. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and the multinomial logistics regression model. The results show that there are more males than females, majority of the respondents’ attained primary education, and older people dominate the smallholder farming system. The adaptation strategies used in MNL model were soil and water management, crop management and livestock management. The results further revealed that soil and water management strategies were the most adopted climate change strategies amongst smallholder farmers. It is understood that marital status, age and gender, income, land tenure, crop grown, extension services, and agro-ecological zones are the determinant factors influencing the choice of the adaptation strategies. This study concludes by recommending that smallholder farmers should be sensitised about climate change and both government and non-government organisations working on climate change related issues should direct their attention to rural communities to ensure effective response to climate change.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
Perceptions of rural households about the role and effect of biogas production on rural household income in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality
- Authors: Ngcobo, Lindiwe
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Biomass energy -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Renewable energy sources -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Sustainable living -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/4694 , vital:28494
- Description: Rural development efforts to reduce poverty and enhance food security and generally improve livelihoods in developing countries continue to be constrained by high energy cost. For that reason, renewable energy has been identified as a possible panacea to fill this gap. Renewable energy is cheaper, more accessible and environmentally sustainable and promotes inclusivity. Biogas is a renewable energy that is readily available and easy to use by poor rural households. The use of biogas digesters among households in rural areas of developing countries is a well-known technology. The potential for biogas in these areas has been demonstrated and a strong economic case has been made. However, its adoption and use have been lower than expectations possibly as result of non-economic considerations, including social issues about which rural people hold different perceptions. Perceptions of rural households are important because they influence the behaviour to a large extent. Since limited access to affordable energy in rural areas has encouraged government and private organisations to initiate biogas projects to overcome the challenge, it is important to ascertain the factors that affect attitudes towards the technology. The present study sought to explore perceptions of rural households about biogas production towards rural household income in the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality. Specifically, this research investigated the state of biogas project being implemented by the University of Fort Hare’s Institute of Technology (FHIT), the perceptions of respondents towards biogas production and determine the contribution of biogas consumption to rural income. The study also aimed to identify the factors affecting the adoption of biogas production in the study area. The study was carried out in Melani village in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 48 households who were enumerated to identify their perceptions on biogas production, with special emphasis on the role and effect contributed to rural income of Melani village. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and purposive sampling technique was used in data collection. Data were collected and captured in Excel and then analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) Version 24 Descriptive statistics was used to examine socio-economic characteristics of households and state of biogas production in the area, Bivariate correlation analysis was used to determine the relationships among the key elements of perceptions of household towards biogas adoption, binary logistic model was used to estimate factors influencing adoption of biogas technology by households. The results show that women were dominant for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas. The majority of households were young with mean age of 40 years while for non-adopters were 65 years old on average. The results showed high levels of literacy amongst household adopters. Majority of the households for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas technology were married and unemployed and household size ranged from one to five persons, with social grants being dominant source of income. The bivariate correlation analysis suggests a positive effect of green pepper production and livestock ownership on biogas technology adoption. Age and level of education were negatively correlated with adoption of biogas. The cross tabulation analysis suggests that water scarcity, lack of knowledge about biogas technology, cattle ownership, lack of maintenance and repairing, flooded biogas digesters during rainy season are negatively associated with the uptake of biogas technology. The empirical results from binary logistic model suggest that land size was the key determinant of adoption behaviour towards biogas technology while age of the household head, source of income and level of education may have a negative influence on adoption of biogas technology. Based on the findings highlighted above, the study recommends strategies to encourage households to adopt biogas technology.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
- Authors: Ngcobo, Lindiwe
- Date: 2017
- Subjects: Biomass energy -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Renewable energy sources -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape Sustainable living -- South Africa -- Eastern Cape
- Language: English
- Type: Thesis , Masters , MSc
- Identifier: http://hdl.handle.net/10353/4694 , vital:28494
- Description: Rural development efforts to reduce poverty and enhance food security and generally improve livelihoods in developing countries continue to be constrained by high energy cost. For that reason, renewable energy has been identified as a possible panacea to fill this gap. Renewable energy is cheaper, more accessible and environmentally sustainable and promotes inclusivity. Biogas is a renewable energy that is readily available and easy to use by poor rural households. The use of biogas digesters among households in rural areas of developing countries is a well-known technology. The potential for biogas in these areas has been demonstrated and a strong economic case has been made. However, its adoption and use have been lower than expectations possibly as result of non-economic considerations, including social issues about which rural people hold different perceptions. Perceptions of rural households are important because they influence the behaviour to a large extent. Since limited access to affordable energy in rural areas has encouraged government and private organisations to initiate biogas projects to overcome the challenge, it is important to ascertain the factors that affect attitudes towards the technology. The present study sought to explore perceptions of rural households about biogas production towards rural household income in the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality. Specifically, this research investigated the state of biogas project being implemented by the University of Fort Hare’s Institute of Technology (FHIT), the perceptions of respondents towards biogas production and determine the contribution of biogas consumption to rural income. The study also aimed to identify the factors affecting the adoption of biogas production in the study area. The study was carried out in Melani village in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 48 households who were enumerated to identify their perceptions on biogas production, with special emphasis on the role and effect contributed to rural income of Melani village. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and purposive sampling technique was used in data collection. Data were collected and captured in Excel and then analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) Version 24 Descriptive statistics was used to examine socio-economic characteristics of households and state of biogas production in the area, Bivariate correlation analysis was used to determine the relationships among the key elements of perceptions of household towards biogas adoption, binary logistic model was used to estimate factors influencing adoption of biogas technology by households. The results show that women were dominant for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas. The majority of households were young with mean age of 40 years while for non-adopters were 65 years old on average. The results showed high levels of literacy amongst household adopters. Majority of the households for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas technology were married and unemployed and household size ranged from one to five persons, with social grants being dominant source of income. The bivariate correlation analysis suggests a positive effect of green pepper production and livestock ownership on biogas technology adoption. Age and level of education were negatively correlated with adoption of biogas. The cross tabulation analysis suggests that water scarcity, lack of knowledge about biogas technology, cattle ownership, lack of maintenance and repairing, flooded biogas digesters during rainy season are negatively associated with the uptake of biogas technology. The empirical results from binary logistic model suggest that land size was the key determinant of adoption behaviour towards biogas technology while age of the household head, source of income and level of education may have a negative influence on adoption of biogas technology. Based on the findings highlighted above, the study recommends strategies to encourage households to adopt biogas technology.
- Full Text:
- Date Issued: 2017
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